Source of all images in this section: http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/clipart/default/aspx
Adolescence is a time of significant physical development. Major physical changes take place while children mature until their bodies resemble those of adults. These changes are the result of biochemical processes based on an increased release of hormones by the endocrine glands. The stage during which adolescents become physically capable of reproduction is commonly referred to as puberty (Rice & Dolgin, 2007).
What happens?
Changes in height, weight, and body shape
During adolescence, youths grow in height and their body weight increases. As a result, the proportions of adolescent bodies change. For most youths, this process begins with a pronounced growth spurt, typically around age 12 for girls and age 14 for boys. During early adolescence, girls mature earlier and are generally taller and heavier than their male peers, though this is not always the case.
Did you know that …
body height is thought to be the result of a variety of genetic and environmental factors? Due to better health care and nutrition, adolescents at present become taller and reach their absolute body height faster than previous generations. They also mature faster sexually. This phenomenon, also labeled secular trend, is thought to be the effect of higher body weight (Rice & Dolgin, 2007).
Development of secondary sexual characteristics
Between approximately ages 10 to 16 (females) and 11 to 18 (males) adolescents develop different secondary sexual characteristics. Secondary sexual characteristics are features that distinguish members of either sex, but are not directly concerned with reproduction. They include:
- Growth of pubic, axillary, facial, and body hair; receding hairline (in males)
- Deepening of male voice due to growth of larynx and lengthening of vocal chords
- Changing body shapes: Girls' hips round and widen, breasts develop. Boys' bones and muscles become more pronounced, and their chests and shoulders broaden.
Keep in mind, however, that secondary sexual characteristics can vary considerably between individuals!!!
Development of primary sexual organs While the development of female sexual organs is more gradual, male sexual organs mature in more distinct states. | |
FEMALES Gradual development of uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mons veneris, and ovaries between ages 10 to 18 Beginning production of ova (eggs) every 20-40 days Onset of menstruation (= menarche), usually around age 12/13, though there can be considerable variation. Although initially menstruation may follow irregular patterns or may occur without ovulation, girls should be considered physically able to become pregnant after menarche. | MALES Accelerated growth of testes and scrotum during early adolescence, slowing down around age 13 Development of mature sperm cells in testes Growth of penis particularly between ages 14 to16 First ejaculation, also referred to as semenarche or spermarche around age 13 Nocturnal emissions (“wet dreams”) |
What you should know
One consequence of the physical changes occurring during adolescence is an awakening interest in sex: “Attention becomes focused on sex, new sexual sensations, and on people of the opposite gender. Adolescent boys and girls spend a lot of time thinking about sex, looking at pictures of sexy individuals and talking about the opposite sex” (Rice & Dolgin, 2007). This period is an exploratory stage in which youths seek to come to terms with their emotions regarding sexuality.
What you can do to aid the transition
- Emphasize that the physical changes taking place during adolescence are normal and healthy processes which do not follow uniform patterns.
- Be sympathetic and sensitive if students approach you to talk about topics related to physical development.
- Signal that you care and are ready and willing to listen.
- Keep conversations confidential.
- Give information if it is sought.
- Be knowledgeable about physical changes during adolescence.
- Refer student to other resources, if appropriate.
Sex education: Recommendations by an interviewed teacher
Did you know that …
for many adolescent girls, the onset of menstruation represents an anticipated milestone, as it is associated with adulthood? The following quote from a girl illustrates this: “When it happened, I thought FINALLY! It seemed like all of my friends had had their periods for years. I felt very left out when they’d sit around and talk about it (even though they didn’t make it sound very pleasant)” (Rice & Dolgin, 2007).
Nevertheless, for many adolescents, menstruation carries negative connotations, and is often linked to feelings of shame, embarrassment, and insecurity, which can result in lowered self-esteem. Usually such negative feelings are the result of negative conditioning through advertisements or negative messages from others (Rice & Dolgin, 2007). It is therefore important to emphasize that menstruation is normal and healthy.
Body image and body dissatisfaction
The many physical changes taking place during adolescence can cause a great deal of embarrassment, insecurity, and discontent among youths. Recent research indicates that about 30 per cent of male and 60 per cent of female adolescents would like to change the shape or size or their bodies (Presnell, Bearman & Stice, 2004).
Causes of body dissatisfaction
Body dissatisfaction is often the result of cultural norms as well as of exposure to stereotypes through the media, which convey that being tall, thin, and slender is highly desirable, particularly for females (Rice & Dolgin, 2007). In addition, perceived peer pressure may play an important role as well (Presnell et al., 2004).
Unrealistic expectations and dissatisfaction in regard to body shape or size generally increase throughout adolescence. Body dissatisfaction is highest among Caucasian, Asian American, and Hispanic girls, and significantly lower among African American girls.
Did you know that …
overweight adolescents are generally most dissatisfied with their bodies? In contrast, underweight females and average weight males are most satisfied with their bodies (Presnell et al., 2004).
Male adolescents are influenced by popular perceptions and stereotypes as well. In contrast to their female peers, they are not so much concerned with their weight, but rather with a body image of strength and athletic build, which carries positive social connotations. However, compared to girls, male adolescents are less likely to be dissatisfied with their appearance, and tend to feel better about their bodies over the course of their adolescence.
Did you know that …
during early and mid-adolescence, many youths experience a phenomenon called locker-room syndrome? While changing clothes before and after gym class, adolescents involuntarily compare their physical development to that of their peers. This can lead to feelings of insecurity, embarrassment, or even inferiority (Rice & Dolgin, 2005).
Consequences of body dissatisfaction:
The relationship between self-perception and self-esteem
Particularly during adolescence, self-perceptions about physical attractiveness are closely linked to issues of self-esteem. Physical attractiveness yields greater popularity and peer acceptance, as attractive adolescents are perceived as friendly, successful, and intelligent. Girls who think of themselves as not sufficiently attractive are more likely to be dissatisfied with themselves, and as a result may become preoccupied with appearance, experience emotional distress, or develop eating disorders or depression (Presnell et al., 2004; Rice & Dolgin, 2007).
What you can do to aid the development of a healthy body image
1. Reality check: Increase awareness about unrealistic norms and ideals. Some ideas:
- Discuss: What does an attractive person look like? Why do we think these persons are attractive? Where do we learn what is attractive?
- Let students bring images of stars or advertisements from magazines to class. In small groups, let students answer the following questions: What do people depicted in these images have in common? Let the students compare these images to real people they know. How do they look different? What could be the reasons for this?
Make students aware that celebrities have a full-time job in looking the way they do. They have personal trainers, nutritionists, makeup artists, and other experts available to them. Point out that many celebrities and models are in fact anorexic and not healthy!
- Demonstrate in class how digital image retouching works. Alternatively, compare images on websites before and after retouching.
Tip: For examples of before and after images, take the image manipulation quiz on http://www.campaignforrealbeauty.com/dsef07/t5.aspx?id=7380
- Compare different ideals of attractiveness, historically and cross-culturally. Alternatively, let older students do research on concepts of ideal beauty in different cultures or during different times and compare the results in class. Do interview projects with parents or grandparents to find out what was fashionable and beautiful when they were young (e.g. hairstyles, dress, make-up).
Tip: You can find a step-by-step lesson plan to develop a healthy body image at http://www.ces.purdue.edu/new/CFS-736-W.pdf
2. Personality is not appearance: Focus on innate qualities and embrace difference
- bodies come in various shapes and sizes, much of which is influenced by genetics.
- it is normal to gain weight and experience physical changes during puberty.
- it takes time to adjust to this "new body".
- Emphasize that personality and appearance are not the same.
- Show your concern for all students and treat them the same, regardless of their appearance.
- Do not comment on a student’s size or weight.
- Let students write down what they like about themselves, and which personality traits or talents make them unique.
- Pair up students randomly and let them write down three personality traits they appreciate about the other person, then exchange these notes.
- Establish respect as a ground rule in the classroom. This means that jokes or teasing about appearance are completely unacceptable.
Tip: If you notice that the same students tend not to be chosen for group activities, games, etc., it may be helpful to determine groups randomly (e.g. by drawing cards) rather than let students choose their teammates.
Did you know that …
research indicates that maturing much faster or slower than average can be problematic? This is true for males and females. Late-maturing adolescents are commonly faced with lower social acceptance, which may contribute to the development of negative self-perceptions. In contrast, early maturing youths are often overwhelmed by high expectations regarding their behavior and responsibilities. Off-time maturing adolescents typically become self-conscious because they perceive differences between their peers and themselves, while it is really important to them to fit in. They are more likely to develop disorders such as anxiety or depression, to take drugs or alcohol, to engage in early sexual behavior, or to become delinquent (Rice and Dolgin, 2007).
Adolescent health
Despite their overall good health status, many adolescents are not making optimal choices regarding their own health. They may not get enough sleep, eat well, or exercise sufficiently. Such behavior is often influenced by poor examples in the media, or among friends and family. Furthermore, many youths share a perception of invulnerability and optimism. They believe that nothing bad could possibly happen to them, as their abilities to consider long-term effects of their behavior may not yet be fully developed (Rice & Dolgin, 2007) .This is where you as a teacher come in ...
Recent research suggests that teachers can be an important influence on teenage health-related behavior. In a recent survey, seventy per cent of surveyed teachers mentioned being actively approached by students about health issues, irrespective of race or ethnicity. This means that many students view teachers as accessible, trustworthy, and knowledgeable in these topics (Cohall et al., 2007).
One area of concern is food and nutrition: “The school environment is an important venue for students to internalize healthy food practices through the types of food offered for consumption as specified by school policies, through delivery of knowledge related to making healthy food choices being included in the curriculum, and through observation and modeling of food choices made by teachers” (Rossiter, Glanmille, Taylor, & Blum, 2007, p. 698).
What you can do to aid in the development of healthy habits
- Be a role model.
- Establish healthy classroom food practices. For instance, do not reward your students with candy, and avoid selling unhealthy foods for fundraising purposes, if alternatives exist.
- Speak up about unhealthy food choices offered in your school.
- Prevent snacking during class.
- Emphasize that food should be a nourishment, not a reward, or means to fight boredom or bad emotions.
- Make clear that all foods can be part of healthy eating. No foods are off limits if they are eaten in moderate amounts.
- Be knowledgeable about nutrition and healthy lifestyles. Provide information about these topics, e.g. about food groups, nutrition values, food additives, allergies, etc.
- Have students critically examine their food intake and compare it to recommended daily allowances.
- Educate about the dangers of dieting and its negative effects on metabolism.
- Shape awareness regarding eating disorders. Inform students about warning signs, dangers, and where to get help.
- Create positive body images (see separate section) and emphasize that character/personality is not linked to appearance.
- Promote exercise as a means to have fun, and stay fit and healthy, not as a tool to change the shape of one’s body.
- Plan hands-on activities and research projects about food and nutrition.
Here are some ideas:
- Bring different processed and raw foods to class. Classify them according to food groups. Compare nutrition values, ingredients, labels, serving sizes, etc.
- Create healthy snacks or other finger foods in class and eat them together.
- Calculate and compare which activities require how many calories.
- Examine school food choices in regard to their nutritional value.
- Research food production processes (e.g. bread, cheese, fruit, vegetables) to sharpen awareness of what is involved in such processes.
- Research "world foods" (e.g., typical dishes, staples, etc.)
- Research global issues regarding food, e.g. hunger, deforestation and meat production, genetically engineered foods, eating "local", etc.
- Research ingredients listed on food labels.
Obesity
Increasing numbers of adolescents in the
Some tips on how you can support overweight students
- Treat all students equally and include them equally in class activities.
- Do not comment on the physical appearance of your students.
- Focus on the innate qualities and achievements of your students.
- Make clear that there is no room for teasing or bullying in your classroom.
- Promote healthy lifestyle choices. Emphasize the importance of healthy food choices and exercise.
However, keep this recommendation by an interviewed teacher in mind:
“Do not overemphasize the topics of food intake and exercise in class because it can unintentionally place overweight students at the center of attention. Often overweight students are unhappy and sensitive about their size and may perceive these topics as directed at them. They may think that discussing these topics in class is a means to address them. Furthermore, for overweight students it can be frustrating to hear the same well-intentioned advice over and over again because it reminds them of their apparent ‘faults’.”
Eating Disorders
Some adolescents become so obsessed with their appearance that they develop eating disorders. These include anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and binge eating, or shape control issues such as muscle dysmorphia, an obsession about not being muscular enough. While sufferers are predominately female, these issues become increasingly problematic for male adolescents as well, who are estimated to account for up to 15 percent of sufferers (National Institute of Mental Health, 2008). This handbook will focus on anorexia nervosa and bulimia, the most common and arguably the most dangerous of these disorders.
Some common warning signs for eating disorders
- Preoccupation with food, food intake, calories, dieting, etc.
- Changes in body weight, e.g. rapid weight loss
- Excessive exercising
- Anxiety about being fat, regardless of weight, and distorted image of own body, e.g. lamenting about “being fat”
- Preparing food for other people
- Lying about food intake
- Numerous trips to the bathroom, particularly directly after meals
- Feeling cold irrespective of actual temperature
- Inability to focus
- Paleness, dizziness
- In girls: loss of menstrual periods
!!! Keep in mind that a sufferer does not necessarily appear underweight or even "average" to suffer any of these signs and symptoms!!!
- Individuals suffering from anorexia nervosa are preoccupied about food intake and body weight, while at the same time being severely underweight.
- Anorexia nervosa is a life-threatening disorder which can cause numerous serious medical conditions. Over 10 percent of anorectics ultimately die from this disease. It is estimated that up to three percent of adolescent girls suffer from this disorder, and research indicates that the number of adolescents suffering from this disorder have been increasing over the last decades (Valois, R. F., Zullig, K. J., Huebner, E. S., & Dran, J. W., 2003).
Bulimia is an eating disorder which consists of episodes of binge-eating and subsequent purging. Like anorectics, bulimic individuals are overly concerned about their weight. However, unlike anorexics, individuals suffering from bulimia are typically within normal weight ranges, or they are overweight. Up to three per cent of adolescent girls may suffer from bulimia (Valois, R. F., Zullig, K. J., Huebner, E. S., & Dran, J. W., 2003).
What causes eating disorders?
Individuals suffering from eating disorders often have negative images of themselves and low self-esteem, and cannot fulfill the perfectionist standards they have established for themselves (Rice & Dolgin, 2005).
Current research links eating disorders to family structures. Anorexic individuals often have a controlling, overprotective family background, while bulimics are often from families where attractiveness, achievement, and success are highly valued (Rice & Dolgin, 2005). A recent study suggests that a perceived lack of communication within the family, particularly with fathers, as well as perfectionism and perceived lack of control may contribute to the development of eating disorders. According to Miller-Davis and Marks (2006) eating disorders express a desire to be “perfect, in control, and conforming to perceived ideals” (p. 161) in order to be recognized.
“I think that the single most important thing is the way society, and the media portray body image. We are given the message, over and over and over, that if you are not attractive, forget it, you are a loser. And attractive means thin. All of us are not blessed with genetics that support that size, so we suffer untold agonies to try to be what we are not intended to be. The message is reinforced by all around us. My parents never bugged me about my weight, except I liked it when they were concerned that I was too skinny. Maybe I was looking for attention from them. They had their own problems, my dad was an alcoholic, and my mum was trying to cope with that and four kids. Men certainly pay a lot more attention to you when you are skinny. I know, I've been from fat to skinny, and back and forth. Right now I am on the heavier side, not really fat, but I sure feel it. I know that people like me for more than how I look, but it's hard to be with people when I feel like this! I feel so gross, and ugly about myself.”
"What could have been done to prevent my ed [eating disorder]? Everything. My parents shouldn't have forced me to sit at the table until I ate everything from the time I could consume solid food on.(I never would, I was to stubborn. This was the only battlefield at my house on which I could win). My athletic director shouldn't have taken our body fat every 3 months, and put us down for it. If I hadn't been such an overachiever and perfectionist. If people acted like shocked smartasses if I decided I didn't want to run for class officer, or join some other club. If my grandmother wouldn't have been so upset when I was on Homecoming court, but didn't win. If I hadn't passed out from drinking when I was 16, and found my boyfriend of 2 years doing things to me I refused to do when I was conscious. If my father hadn't told me in a fit of rage one night I was the cause of his problems with my mother. My boyfriend going around school and telling everyone I was a good f---. Maybe all of these are simplistic, and should just be brushed off. Maybe since I know the roots of my problems I should be able to heal myself, or get help. But I can't do that. So I stick my finger down my throat."
What you can do when you suspect that a student suffers from an eating disorder
- Talk privately to the student and explain why you are concerned. This requires a great amount of sensitivity and empathy.
- Throughout the conversation, show your care, concern and interest. Do not promise confidentiality if you cannot keep it, e.g. due to school policies.
- Let the student respond and listen. Avoid judgment.
- If your concerns are confirmed, propose that further evaluation of the issue is in order. Convince the student that eating disorders are difficult to overcome on one’s own and to seek professional help.
- Refer the student to appropriate services.
- Follow up with the student.
- Do not give advice on food, dieting, or exercise, or comment on appearance or weight.
Keep in mind that “ Throughout the process of detection, referral, and recovery, the focus should be on the person feeling healthy and functioning effectively, not weight, shape, or morality” (Levine & Smolak 1994).
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